This article focuses on the Order of Christ, a very prominent and ancient order of knighthood. The article gives special attention to the Kongolese Royal Order of Christ, because of its very compelling history.
The original Order of Christ was a military order, which originates from the famous Order of the Temple (Knights Templar). The order of the Knights Templar was founded by Hugh de Payens, a French nobleman from the Champagne region, along with eight of his companions, in Jerusalem around 1119. The Knights Templar, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, became an important charity throughout Christendom, thus growing rapidly and becoming a very powerful Christian institution. The knights were prominent in international finance and were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. Their spread of properties all across Europe and presence in almost every kingdom made them very powerful. The knight were not subjected to the authority or policies of any particular king. They were tax exempt in many jurisdictions across Europe. This unique power concentration attracted the negative attention of the King of France.
In 1307, Philip IV of France arrested the Knights Templar on charges of blasphemy, idolatry, and sodomy. The investigation and trial into the alleged misdeeds of the Knights Templar took place in Rome between 1307 and 1312. On 18 March 1314, the Grandmaster and other knights of the Order were burned alive by order of King Philip. In September 2001, Barbara Frale, an Italian paleographer at the Vatican Secret Archives, found a copy of a document, known as the ‘Chinon Parchment’ in the Vatican Secret Archives. The document explicitly confirms that in 1308 Pope Clement V absolved Jacques de Molay and other leaders of the Order including Geoffroi de Charney and Hugues de Pairaud (Barbara Frale 2004, “The Chinon chart – Papal absolution to the last Templar, Master Jacques de Molay”, Journal of Medieval History 30 (2): 109–134). Another Chinon parchment dated 20 August 1308 addressed to Philip IV of France, stated that absolution had been granted to all those Templars that had confessed to heresy “and restored them to the Sacraments and to the unity of the Church” (Pierre Dupuy, Histoire de l’Ordre Militaire des Templiers, Foppens, Brusselles 1751; Étienne Baluze, Vitae Paparum Avenionensis, 3 Volumes, Paris 1693. (source: freiherrvonquast.wordpress.com).
Nonetheless, the Pope Clement V suspended the order in 1312, by papal bull Vox in excelso under pressure from King Philip. All of its assets were handed over to Hospitallers across all Christian territories (Barber 1995; Martin 2005). A reliable Italian translation of the bull Vox in excelso, which is important to determine the exact historical events, can be found here (source: OSMTH).
This papal bull Vox in excelso was not honored by King Diniz of Portugal (1261-1325), The Portuguese Templars had contributed to the conquest of Algarve from the Muslims. The Order of the Temple had been present in Portuguese territory since
1128, even before the official foundation of the kingdom (1144), and over time had become a military and economic power. They were feudal lords of several cities and owners of land, castles and other properties and were still defending the conquest when their order was suppressed. The Templars of Portugal had been declared innocent by the ecclesiastical court of the Bishop of Lisbon. In order to protect these valuable warriors, King Diniz annexed all the Templar assets to his Crown . He then negotiated with the Pope to create a new religious militia, that was needed to defend Portugal from the threats of Islam. On 19 March 1319, after long negotiations, characterized by intensive diplomatic negotiations, tensions and clashes, in and out of the kingdom of Portugal, Pope John XXII granted King Diniz permission to form a new military religious order, based on the original Templars: the Ordo Militae Jesu Christi, or Military Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ. The Pope placed the new order under the rule of the Knights of Calatrava (formed around 1164) and put them under the control of the Cistercian Abbot of Alcobaca in Portugal. The Vatican claims that the Pope also reserved to right to appoint members of the Order. While the Bull in itself does not explicitly grant to the Pope the right to issue the Order, successive popes since Pope John XXII (1316-1334) have done so. These appointments had a religious character. The cross was distinctive from the cross then born by the knights of the Military Order of Christ. Several documents from the archives of the Order or from those of the Mesa da Consciência e Ordens (Court of Conscience and Orders, created by King João III in 1532 to deal with particular matters concerning the discharge of the King´s conscience) show a systematic refusal of the Portuguese Crown to recognize or accept this practice as valid. With Papal Bull of 1323, Pope John XXII authorized King Diniz to turn over the Portuguese estates of the former Templars to the Order of Christ; thus effectively finalizing the incorporation of the Knights Templar in Portugal into the newly formed Order.
Initially this new militia had its base close to the river mouth of Guadiana, in Castro Marim. The new order´s mantle was similar to the one worn by the original Knights Templar – white with a red cross; although it differed slightly in shape. In 1357, the headquarters of the Order of Christ was set up in the former Knights Templar headquarters, the castle of Tomar. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Knights Templar survived in Portugal in a slightly amended form: the Order of Christ. Contrary to popular belief, the Knights Templar are not extinct.
The five Orders of Christ
Today, there exist five Orders of Christ that all originate from the Knights Templar. Each of them has a relation with the original Order of Christ, that was formed to protect the remaining Knights Templar in Portugal.
Papal Supreme Order of Christ
The papal Supreme Order of Christ is extremely rarely awarded. Currently, there are no living persons who have obtained the Order in a public ceremony. According to the Catholic Church, the Pope is the head of every religious order and may appoint, at his discretion and without the permission of its superior general, any individual he deems worthy. Therefore, it may be the case that there are persons, to whom the Order has been granted by the Pope in a private ceremony.
The Supreme Order of Christ is the highest order of knighthood awarded by the Pope. As part of the re-structuring of papal honours by Pope Pius X, the Order of Christ was made the senior-most Papal honour. Traditionally, it was awarded to senior Catholic Heads of State, but may be awarded to anyone as a personal gift of the Holy Father. The usage of the Supreme Order of Christ was restricted under the pontificate of Pope Paul VI in his 1966 Bull Equestres Ordinis, to Catholic Heads of State to whom it might be given only to commemorate very special occasions at which the Pope himself was present. It is now rarely awarded. The last public award was made by Pope John Paul II in 1987 to Frà Angelo de Mojana, 77th Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. With the death of King Baudouin of the Belgians in 1993 there are no living members of the Order of Christ who were awarded the order publicly. However, there may be members who were awarded the order privately. There are no official records .
PapalKnights.org
Portuguese Royal Order of Christ
Without doubt, the head of the Portuguese Royal Family has the historical and legal right to issue the Order of Christ upon worthy individuals. However, I have not seen recent examples of such grants. Just as the Pope can issue the Order of Christ at his discretion, the head of the Portuguese Royal Family can choose to grant the honor without permission from any other party, since the historically inherited fons honorum is invested in him personally.
It should be noted that there exists a long-going dispute between the Pope and the head of the Portuguese Royal Family regarding the right to issue the Order of Christ.
In late XVIth century, already under the Spanish Dual Monarchy, D. Jorge de Ataíde – president of the «Mesa da Consciência e Ordens», in a report to the King in Madrid, commenting on the fact that the Pope had given in Rome, the “habit” of the Order of Christ to a certain Papirio Picedi, recommended that the King should protest at once and request the Pope to abstain from such practices (1).
Another known example of this controversial papal practice, dates from the XVIIth century, when after a papal brief a habit of Christ was given at Valladolid by the local bishop. The «Mesa da Consciência e Ordens» having heard of it, immediately reacted (February 20th, 1627), considering the fact a very serious one and at once recommended that the King should prohibit the false knight from wearing the insignia within its realms, and that the Bishop should be censured for having carried out a papal brief without the King’s consent (2).
Again in the XVIIIth century, it is also recorded an incident that took place in the reign of King John V, involving an Italian architect named Giovanni Servandoni, who had been called to Portugal, in 1745-1746, for the drawing of the plans for the construction of the Royal Palace and Convent of Necessidades (3), in Lisbon. Servandoni, who had allegedly been made by the Pope a knight of the Order of Christ, unduly bore the insignia of the Order in Lisbon.
However, King John V, considering that the only legitimate “fons honoris” was the king of Portugal, being as he was the Order’s Grand-Master, forbade Servandoni to wear the insignia and had him arrested. As late as 1825, the Portuguese Crown sent its protest to Rome reacting to the Pope’s award of the Order of Christ “motu proprio” to several people, considering it unlawful and requesting the immediate cessation of that practice (4).
(1) cf. Fernanda OLIVAL, Para uma Análise Sociológica das Ordens Militares no Portugal de Antigo Regime (1581-1621), I Vol., (Master’s degree thesis at the University of Lisbon), Lisboa, 1988, unpublished, p. 148, note 72.
(2) in ANTT, Mesa da Consciência, Lº. 29, fl. 99; this information was kindly given by our friend Dra. Fernanda Olival, a scholar in the modern history of the military orders, to whom we wish to express here our gratitude and valuable comments on the subject. Dra. Olival, lecturing at the University of Évora, is presently preparing a doctoral thesis on the military orders, and has written many crucial papers on the subject.
(3) Cf. Marques POLIANO, Ordens Honoríficas do Brasil, Inprensa Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, 1943, pp. 68-69; Ambassador Dr. Miguel H. CORTE-REAL, O Palácio das Necessidades, Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, Lisboa, 1983, p. 18.
(4) Diplomatic Note by the Count of Funchal, Portuguese Ambassador to the Holy See, addressed to the Cardinal Secretary of State, July 6th, 1825.
José Vicente de Bragança, The Military Order of Christ and the Papal Croce di Cristo
Currently, the Duke of Braganza and the Duke of Loulé are the main claiments to the defunct throne of Portugal. They share a common ancestor: King John VI of Portugal. I concluded earlier, that both have a transparent claim to the headship of the Royal Family of Portugal. I have not seen any indication that the Duke of Braganza executes his fons honorum regarding the Order of Christ. The same is true for the Duke of Loulé. Perhaps, they want to avoid a discussion with the Republic of Portugal, that also issues the Order of Christ (see below).
Brazilian Imperial Order of Christ
The Brazilian Order of Christ is issued extremely rarely. After the formation of the independent Brazilian empire in 1822, the de facto and de jure monarch, Dom Pedro I, exercised the fons honorum which was transmitted by his father, King Dom João VI of Portugal. In addition, the emperor continued to issue titles of nobility and the granting of the three ancient Portuguese orders of chivalry:
The Orders of Christ, Aviz and St. James were awarded in its Brazilian design from September 7, 1822 on. This date marked its independence from Portugal. The orders coexisted and originated in Portugal. The order was awarded to citizens and foreigners under Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II. until 1889, when Brazil became a republic. Wishing to resolve the question of the Grandmaster ship of the Portuguese Ancient Military Orders in Brazil, Peter I (IV of Portugal) asked the Pope, through the Brazilian Ambassador to the Holy See, to recognize the rights in Brazil, which once belonged to the Kings of Portugal. This gave way to the Bull Praeclara Portugaliiae Algarbiorumque Regum, on May 15 1827, given by Pope Leo XII, by which was created a Brazilian branch of the Order of Christ.
Notwithstanding, the Bull provoked a great political dispute and was never ratified by the Imperial Parliament. From this point one might say, following Marques Poliano, that the Portuguese Orders ceased to exist as such, in the Empire of Brazil. In 1843, under Emperor Dom Pedro II, the Orders of Christ, Aviz and of St. James were recognized in Brazil as National Orders having the Emperor as its Grandmaster. The insignia was basically the same with the addition of the Imperial Crown to the Star and altering the ribbon to distinguish it from the Portuguese Orders of the same name. These Brazilian Orders lasted till the Republican Constitution of 1891 abolished them. Even though the order seam to be awarded over a long period of time, actual decorations are quite rare. Fred Atlmann points out only 2 known knight cross decorations, a star and a grandmaster cross, which seamed to be build on the base of a cross of the Order of the Southern Cross.
Andreas M. Schulze Ising, MedalNet
The current claim to the headship of the Brazilian Imperial Family is disputed between two lines of succession from the original Brazilian emperors: the Petrópolis line and the Vassouras line. The Grand Mastership of the Brazilian Order of Christ is also disputed between these two branches. Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza (born 1945) is the head of the Petrópolis line. He is forest engineer and, according to Spanish newspaper Público (9 Jan. 2008), supports a republican form of government: “Yo soy republicano. La monarquía en Brasil no funcionaría”. Prince Pedro Carlos’ second cousin, Prince Luiz of Orléans-Braganza is the head of the Vassouras branch. He is a claimant to the fons honorum regarding to the Imperial Order of Christ.
Kongolese Royal Order of Christ
In 1483, the Portuguese arrived in Kongo, then a vast kingdom in west-central Africa, located south of the Congo River (now Angola and Democratic Republic of the Congo). Back then, the kingdom was already a powerful and centralised state, which made a strong impression on its visitors. In 1491, the Milanese ambassador in Lisbon compared the capital Mbanza Kongo to the prestigious city of Évora, the royal residence in Portugal. At that time, Nzinga a Nkuwu was the manikongo; ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo. In 1491, both he and his son, Mvemba a Nzinga, were baptized by Portuguese clergymen. Both assumed Christian names; João I Nzinga a Nkuwu and Afonso I Mvemba a Nzinga, respectively. Afonso, who became manikongo around 1509, extended Kongo’s borders, centralized administration, and developed sustainable ties between Kongo and Portugal. King João I’s son Afonso was sent to Portugal to study theology and amazed the catholic hierarchy with his intelligence and intense piety.
It seems to me from the way he speaks as though he is not a man but rather an angel, sent by the Lord into this kingdom to convert it; for I assure that is he who instructs us, and that he knows better than we do the Prophets and the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ and the lives of the saints and all the things concerning out Holy Mother the Church? For he devotes himself entirely to study, so that it often happens that he falls asleep over his books, and often he forgets to eat and drink in talking of the things of Our Lord.
The Franciscan missionary, and Portuguese royal chaplain sent to assist Kongo’s religious development, Rui d’Aguiar, writing to King Manuel of Portugal about the piety of the Mani Kongo, King Afonso of the Kongo, 25 May 1516.
During his reign (1509 to late 1542 or 1543) as Afonso I, he established good relations with the Vatican. In 1513, he sent his son Henrique to the Vatican to become a bishop. Afonso I wanted to make the Kongo church independent and self-sufficient. In 1518, Henrique became bishop, with the status ‘in partibus infidelium’ (‘in infidel areas’). When Henrique returned to the Kongo kingdom, his status enabled him to appoint Kongolese priests and to spread Christianity within the kingdom. Henrique died in 1531. In 1534, the papacy turned the Kongo church into a branch of the Diocese located on the Portuguese island of São Tomé, giving the Portuguese greater political influence.
When King Nzinga of Kongo converted to Christianity in 1491, the Portuguese supplied him with everything necessary for the maintenance of the Catholic faith, including priests, crosses, and devotional panel paintings bearing images of the Virgin Mary and various saints. The same counts for the red cross of the Order of Christ that frequently appeared on the sails of Portuguese vessels, as recorded in the Livro de Lisuarte de Abreu in The Morgan Library and Museum. This striking symbol was soon incorporated into Kongo’s visual culture (source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art).
The Order of Christ was introduced to central Africa in the first moments of contact with Europe and soon became a staple of the kingdom’s political life. Early modern depictions and archeological evidence placed the Order’s insignia, a cross with hollow branches of equal length, among the most prominent regalia of the central African elite. Precious metal medallions such as the one recovered at the eighteenth century cemetery of Ngongo Mbata or depicted on the chest of the Kongo king Portuguese chronicler Cadornega painted in the 1680s, embroideries on the coats of the rulers as seen in the Missione in Prattica vignettes, wax seals and signatures in the autograph correspondence of the elite, rock painting and engravings all heralded the emblem of the Order. Attached to the cap as lion claws or other badges of prestige, they turned the mpu into an emblem of Christian nobility. Placed on the central African cap, they also became central African metaphors of the power and legitimacy that the cap’s wearer derived from Christianity and its invisible realm. Here again, in successive, cumulative strokes, ideas and motifs linked to both Kongo and European religious and political thought met, blurred and, eventually, redeployed into a single, cohesive object.
Fromont, Cécile. (2017). Foreign Cloth, Local Habits: Clothing, Regalia, and the Art of Conversion in the Early Modern Kingdom of Kongo. Anais do Museu Paulista: História e Cultura Material, 25(2), 11-31. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-02672017v25n02d01-2
One of the fundamental laws of the Kingdom of Congo is that the King is not subsequent but elective, that women cannot reign, and the children of the King cannot reign immediately to the father, but they can on other occasions. The election of the King belongs to the Marcheze Manivunda, and to the Councilors of State. The line of succession to kingdom of Kongo was often disputed, especially, in 1509, when, instead of the usual election among the nobles, a hereditary European-style succession was introduced.
In 1568, King Álvaro I came to the throne during one of these disputes. He was not a blood relative of any of the previous kings. Like his predecessors, Álvaro also promoted the westernization of Kongo, for example, by gradually introducing European style titles for his nobles: Manuel Jordão became the Duke of Nsundi; Pedro Nkanga a Mvika became Marquis of Wembo and subsequently Duke of Mbamba; Álvaro’s brother Felix de Espirito Santo became Marquis of Mpemba in 1619, and Daniel da Silva became the Count of Soyo. Álvaro and his son Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga (crowned in 1587) issued the Order of Christ to prominent and loyal subjects, effectively creating a new Order of Christ, by incorporating the original Portuguese Order into their regional culture. This practice continued well into the nineteenth century. It also included distinct armorial elements:
Even more significant was the award of a coat of arms to King Afonso I of Congo [c. 1456–1542 or 1543], in which all the symbolic and legendary elements relating to Ourique and the ideal of the crusade were boldly transposed to equatorial Africa (Rosa 2006: 19-36). The heraldic acculturation that was started at this time also included the sending of 20 grants of arms to the Congolese sovereign authorizing the setting up (and control) within his kingdom of a heraldic representation of the nobility, together with their respective titles (Seixas 1996: 330-334). It is revealing that the new coat of arms of the Congolese sovereign converted to Christianity was included in the chapters of both Livro do Armeiro-mor and Livro da Nobreza e Perfeiçam das Armas dedicated to the heraldry of all the kingdoms existing in the world. By including such insignia, the compiler incorporated into this list a kingdom that was assumed as a subsidiary of the Portuguese Crown, which, in this way, strengthened its imperial dimension (..).
Miguel Metelo de Seixas, Overseas Elements in Portuguese Armorials from the Modern Era, e-JPH, Vol. 15, number 2, December 2017.
Catholic paraphernalia functioned within the early modern Kongo as precious rarities alluding to privilege, wealth, and power. According to the Capuchin missionary Raimondo da Dicomano, missionary between 1791 and 1795, knights of the Order of Christ in the Kingdom of Kongo enjoyed “the privilege to put lots of crosses made with pieces of cloth in several colors on their capes or on the cloths made out of straw which they use to cover themselves” (“il privilegio di potere mettere molte croci fatte di ritagli di panno di diversi colori nel ferraiolo ò in quel panno di paglia con che ordinariamente si coprono”). Source: Arlindo, Correa. [1798] 2021. “Informazione sul regno del Congo di Fra Raimondo da Dicomano (1798).” Lisbon, Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Diversos, caixa 823, sala 12.
After a revolt (1913–1914), Portugal abolished the title of king of Kongo. The title was restored from 1915 until 1975, as an honorific without material power. Portugal opposed the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974. Then, a left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, initiated the independence of Portugal’s overseas territories in Africa and Asia, and the restoration of democracy.
Current successors to the defunct throne of Kongo, could legitimately claim the fons honorum regarding this Order of Christ. However, determining a successor is complicated because the traditional customs have to be taken into account. Dr. Mambi Tunga-Bau has examined how these traditional customs are embedded in modern Democratic Republic of Congo law (one of the legal successors of the former Kingdom of Kongo). Although not directly applicable to the past, his findings can analogously serve as a reference to judge current claims. Mambi Tunga-Bau states that birthright is not an absolute right in succession, explaining that in practice, the eldest becomes the person who has the greatest virtues for assuming power. Therefore, it is the noble candidate who socially justifies more assets who assumes power. The election is organized between the right holders, excluding widespread competition in the population, as well as in terms of the eligibility of candidates and the elective population. Dr. Mambi Tunga-Bau adds that it goes without saying that it is not possible for individuals outside of a chieftain family to assume power (Tunga-Bau, Héritier Mambi. Pouvoir Traditionnel Et Pouvoir D’État En R.D. Congo Contemporaine: Esquisse D’une Théorie D’hybridation Des Pouvoirs Politiques. Kinshasa: Médiaspaul, 2010, pp. 26-29).
To my knowledge, Dom Jose Henrique Da Silva born 1942 or 1944, is a potential claimant. He is said to live in Cabinda, northern enclave of Angola. In addition, an American citizen, originally named Dom Manuel Alvaro Afonso Nzinga, grand duke of Nzinga, has a legitimate claim. Considering the complicated traditional customary laws, that have to be applied from a historical perspective, and the fact that there is no authoritative institution in this respect, it is impossible to single out one successor to the former Kings of Kongo. However, it is possible to determine transparent claims in this respect, that legitimize new awardings of the Kongolese Order of Christ.
It should be noted that since the second half of the 16th century, Africans were also able to become members of the Portuguese Order of Christ (Olival 2002, p. 78-79). Naturally, they had to be Christians.
Portuguese Republican Order of Christ
On 1 February 1908, King Carlos I of Portugal and his eldest son and heir, Prince Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza, were brutally murdered in Lisbon by Portuguese republican revolutionaries. Under the King’s rule, Portugal had been declared bankrupt twice (1892 and 1902). This caused civil unrest and the rise of anti-monarchy sentiment. Dom Carlos’ second and youngest son, Manuel II of Portugal, became the new king, but was overthrown on 5 October 1910 by a revolution, which abolished the monarchy and installed a republican government in Portugal. Dom Manuel and the royal family fled to England.
In 1917, the new republic incorporated (currently: Lei das Ordens Honoríficas Portuguesas) the Military Order of Christ, together with the Military Orders of Aviz and of St. James of the Sword, into the group of Ancient Military Orders, which became part of the national republican honours system. The Order is still awarded to prominent individuals.
Conclusions
The Order of Christ is the only historical extension of the ancient Knights Templar. Its current manifestations however, cannot be compared to the ancient order of warriors. Throughout history, the Order of Christ has recognized people who have made achievements in public life and committed themselves to serving and helping the Catholic faith. It is one of the most high-ranking orders of knighthood in Christian history. I think it is good that successors to former monarchs who can prove transparently that they possess a legitimate fons honorum, continue to award the Order. The Order of Christ should only be awarded, based on the deeds and merits to the benefit of the Holy See and should not be degraded.
The fact that the Republic of Portugal adopted the name and medals of the Order of Christ, does not mean that the Portuguese Royal Family has lost the authority to issue the Order. When a monarch is involuntarily deposed, the monarch and the state are not entwined anymore, but the two are separated. It is in line with longstanding international legal principles that (ex-)rulers continue to possess their sovereign rights (see Hugo Grotius’ De iure belli ac pacis; English: On the Law of War and Peace. Paris 1625), and therefore still hold the fons honorum to create nobiliary titles and issue awards:
That is called Supreme, whose Acts are not subject to another’s Power, so that they cannot be made void by any other human Will. When I say, by any other, I exclude the Sovereign himself, who may change his own Will, as also his Successor, who enjoys the same Right, Cacheranus Decis Pedem. 139. n. 6. and consequently, has the same Power, and no other.
Hugo Grotius, The Rights of War and Peace, edited and with an Introduction by Richard Tuck, from the Edition by Jean Barbeyrac (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005. Vol. 1. 8/16/2020). https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1425, Book 1, Chapter 3, paragraph 7
Based on Grotius’ book of authority, the Portuguese Royal family still has the legitimate right to issue the Order of Christ. The Republican version exists separately from the historical, royal version. The latter is based on a centuries old relation between the Order and the Royal Family. The same is true for the successors of the Brazilian and Kongolese Royal families. Their sovereign, dynastic rights regarding the Order of Christ remain in place and are not affected by their constitutional position.
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Nobiliary law - Adelsrecht - Droit nobiliaire 